Just because she likes the same bizzaro crap you do doesn't mean she's your soul mate

Music Preferences and Interpersonal Perception

Isabel Acosta, 2007-49035

In the 2009 film, 500 Days of Summer, the lead character Tom Hansen falls in love with Summer Finn, especially after he found out that she likes The Smiths.

Summer: [Tom is listening to headphones in an elevator with Summer. She notices the music] I love the Smiths.

Tom: Sorry?

Summer: I said I love the Smiths.

Summer: [They stare at each other for a moment] You... You have good taste in music.

Tom: [repeating after her] You... like the Smiths?

Summer: [singing] To die by your side, such a heavenly way to die.

[speaking] I love em.

Tom: [elevator stops, Summer leaves while Tom remains dumbfounded] Holy shit.

This scene is not atypical. I'm sure you have experienced it before, people who have the same taste in music as us suddenly become more attractive, or people who reveal that they worship Justin Bieber suddenly become disgusting and unbearable (no offense). Excellent music taste is crucial trait or commonality we look for in our most intimate relationships. We even use music to create impressions about our own personalities! What is it about music preferences that influences our perception of other personalities? Does the use of such information give us accurate impressions of other people, and can we convey our personalities efficiently and effectively by sharing our music preferences? Is music really enough to tell if one can be a compatible potential mate? Rentfrow & Gosling (2006) sought to find these out.

What can you infer about this person? We think the person's awesome!

In their first study, they asked the question, "What do people talk about as they become acquainted?" The researchers thought that the content of these getting-to-know conversations contain a lot of information about the person's thoughts, feelings, preferences and values and thus the topics talked about should influence people's impressions of one another. Examining these conversations would also be helpful to find out what kinds of information people use to get to know the other person. They examined the content of online conversations among 60 strangers (mean age = 18.4 years old, SD = .94) over a 6 week getting -acquainted period. They were not given any instructions but to talk about anything they thought would enable them to get to know each other. They coded the conversations using the Linguistic Inventory and Word Count computer program. It checks each word of a text and categorizes them into books, clothing, movies, music, television shows, football and other sports (these are the most popular conversation topics, according to a previous study by the same researchers, and it was football season during the study), and the percentage of total words in each category was reported. The researchers analyzed the percentage of participants who talked about specific topics, and they found that music was the most commonly discussed topic. Given that the only instructions were to talk about anything that would help the participants be better acquainted, the results implied that music plays an important role in getting to know other people.

Friendships and relationships can start from the question, "What music do you listen to?"

In the second study, the researchers asked, "What interpersonal information do music preferences convey?" Do a person’s music preferences convey a clear, consistent, and interpretable message about his or her personality? If so, how accurate is that message? And what features of these preferences convey the interpersonal information? Seventy-four undergraduates (mean age = 18.9 years old, SD = 2.3) completed personality tests (the Big Five Inventory, Rokeach's Values Survey, and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) and included a CD containing their top 10 favorite songs. A new set of 8 participants/observers were tasked to listen to all 74 CDs and rate the CD owners using the same scales they (the CD owners) previously answered. The researchers found that the observers had similar impressions of the participants (positive correlations for all measures). They also found that these impressions were accurate, by comparing the observers' and the participants' ratings on the different scales. They found positive correlations for each measure (BFI, values and affect). To further test the accuracy of these results and to contextualize them further, the researchers compared the results to the results of a previous study that used videotapes and photographs as bases of personality. The results of this comparison is graphed below:

+ 1 means a perfect correlation while - 1 is the perfect inverse correlation

They found that the information available from music is very different from what can be learned from studying photographs and videos. Although videos and photos are good at assessing Conscientiousness and Extraversion, music preferences were more telling of Agreeableness, Emotional Stability, and Openness to Experience. Observer's and participant's ratings were positively correlated in 11 other traits aside from the three Big Five traits previously mentioned.

What can you tell from Steve Martin's picture?

What can you tell from his

playlist?

The researchers also found that the observers' judgements of the participants were associated with a number of music attributes (such as tempo, pitch, etcetera) and genre. For example, extraversion was related to energy, enthusiasm, singing, and the genre's country and hip-hop. They also correlated the participants' own ratings with musical attributes and genres, and they found that both attributes and genres said were valid indicators of their personality (like extraverted targets' songs were full of energy, singing, enthusiasm etc.) The researchers then compared these two correlations with each other and found that some traits and impressions were mediated better by a particular cue. For example, impressions of certain qualities, like Extraversion, are more strongly related to information about music attributes than to information about genres, whereas other impressions, like value for imagination, are more strongly associated with information about genres than with information about music attributes. It was a pity that the researchers did not include the table containing the correlations between the judgments, the 25 music attributes, and genres in the journal article (because it would be space-consuming), so I would not be able to discuss the other correlations they found. I think that they did not find it necessary to include the table anymore because the main point of this substudy is that our judgments of other people's identity based on music preferences are fairly accurate and we draw our inferences based on certain cues, such as the music's attributes and genre.

Music and Identity --or was it the other way around?

Research on the social psychology of music suggests that 1) individuals believe music preferences reveal information about their personalities, 2) individuals deliberately use music preferences to convey information about themselves, and 3) music preferences and personality are linked. With these, the researchers found it reasonable to infer that discussions about music preferences could serve to inform individuals’ understanding of one another’s personalities. To sum it up, the researchers found that a) music is a common topic of conversation among strangers who are aiming to be acquainted with the other, b) music preferences carry unique information about personality that is not readily available from more observable cues like photos and videos, c) given that the observers' ratings were found to be accurate, individuals’ music preferences convey consistent and messages about their personalities, and d) the results suggest that "specific attributes of individuals’ music preferences and music-genre stereotypes differentially influenced observers’ impressions of targets’ traits, values, and affect." Researchers indicate that their study's sample comprised of young adults, because of the centrality of music in the youth's lives (importance of music diminishes with age). Since the sample was limited to this cohort, the researchers are not sure about the applicability of the findings to older people. Future studies are then recommended to test if the same findings will be observed in a sample of older participants. Also, future studies should concentrate on the mechanisms and process that explain the links between personality and music preferences.

Human beings have an intuitive understanding of music preferences and personality (example, jazz listeners were correctly perceived as intellectuals, a preference for vocals was correctly related to extraversion, etc)! This intuition is probably largely driven or influenced by our social interactions, experience with the music, and exposure to media and pop culture. Our judgements of personality based on music preference is probably mediated by our social status, country of residence, and cohort as well. But why do music preferences reveal information about personality? The researchers suggested three possible mechanisms. First, individuals might seek out styles of music on the basis of how pleasing they sound. Definition of pleasingness depends on a number of factors ranging from low-level auditory aesthetics (for example, extraverted individuals might listen to choral music purely because they enjoy the sound of the human voice) to higher-level cognitive processes (for example, the words of a religious song may correspond with an individual’s spiritual beliefs). Second, individuals might seek out styles of music to regulate their arousal levels; for example, easygoing individuals might prefer soothing styles of music because such music enables them to maintain a level of calmness. Third, individuals might use music to make self- and other-directed identity claims like, intellectual people might listen to complex music because it projects an image of sophistication. Another study by Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham (2007) studied the use of music as well. Their study can be accessed here: http://alliance.la.asu.edu/temporary/students/katie/PersonalityAndMusic.pdf (If you are interested).

What does your music say about you?

The study established the basic links between personality expression, personality impression and music preferences. It is so interesting how music is actually a reliable marker of personality or impressions and these impressions are mediated by our perception of music (its elements such as pitch, tempo, rhythm etc), along with our personal biases and stereotypes regarding music genres! Even our individual characteristics and exposure to varying experiences mediates the perception and impression formation process. It is such an amazing interplay of implicit information! This study really made me appreciate the perceptual process further --it is a true testament to the dynamic relationship between stimuli, experience, knowledge, and perception. It is so amazing how much can be shared and how much can be learned just by finding out a person's music preferences. It is so interesting how integral music is in our identity formation and interpersonal perceptions. It certainly presents another way by which we navigate through everyday social interactions and impressions --this study is contributory to both on perception and social psychology. I am really stunned with the results of the study, because it is so unbelievable that music-based inferences are actually accurate and telling of the person's character. I guess it was right for Tom to exclaim, "Holy shit" after all. Although personality inferences are found to be fairly accurate, I think it is important to remember that our individual differences (socio-economic status, exposure, age, biases, etc) still mediate our inferences and impressions. We cannot ultimately box people according to our personal meanings about their music preferences. Music preferences and the amount of information we can obtain from them should just assist us in our interactions with other people. Given that music preferences holds a lot of powerful and telling information, we should remember to use that information wisely, logically and ethically. We must not abuse or misuse this substantial source of information.

So next time your parent asks you about your suitor, or next time you want to assess a potential mate, get a list or better yet, a CD of his or her top-10 ultimate eargasmic songs. You and your parents might like what you hear --literally and figuratively.

Source:

Rentfrow, P.J., & Gosling, S.D. (2006). Message in a ballad: The role of music preferences in interpersonal perception. Psychological Science, 17(3), 236-242.

See also:

Rentfrow, P.J., & Gosling, S.D. (2003). The do-re-mi’s of everyday life: The structure and personality correlates of music preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1236–1256.

Additional information: My part in my report for PI 100 was about the many impacts of music and its connection to the youth and nationalism. I will post that sometime next week :)

Cristina Menchaca 2007-49018

Oh yes, people did research those narrators in our heads.

I don’t know about you, but when I read books, I have a personal narrator who reads the book out to me in my head. The narrator’s voice varies, depending on the book’s characteristics. When it comes to reading school-related things, the voice reading out the text belongs to the teacher of that subject, since that teacher discussed those things out loud in class. It’s when you read a text message or chat with a friend and say “Oh my gosh I can really imagine/ hear you saying that!” You know what I mean more or less, right?

People attend to, learn, and respond to linguistic and nonlinguistic properties of speech when they encounter spoken language. In other words, we don’t just pay attention to the structure (grammar, words, sentences) and content a person says, but also how they say it (their voices and manner of speaking). We pay attention to ‘talker-specific properties’ that make that person’s speaking style unique. Listeners have been found to identify the speaker’s dialect, status, health, sex, and emotional state. Such sensitivity to nonlinguistic properties of speech drove researcher to examine how talker-specific information influences the representation and processing of spoken language. Research has suggested that such properties of speech are retained in memory and influence perceptual processing of spoken language in different levels (phonological, lexical, and sentential, if you were curious).

Such research goes against the ‘traditional’ approaches to linguistic representation which depend on linguistic (‘technical’) properties of speech. Such a view entails context-free representations that are independent of nonlinguistic properties such as the speaker’s voice. The approach against this traditional view proposes that representations of spoken language include nonlinguistic properties (surface characteristics). Such a view believes that these properties aren’t necessarily independent of linguistic content. Instead, they constitute an integral component of the speech and language perceptual process. This approach has called for a renewed focus on the importance of nonlinguistic info and their roles in processing and representing speech. Research has been increasingly examining the surface characteristics listeners attend to and retain in spoken language.

The researchers in this study examined whether readers would engage in a form of auditory imagery for speech both when reading aloud and when reading silently. The researchers got 99 participants of introductory psych classes, all of whom received credit for participating. (Sounds familiar?) It was ensured that the students had normal hearing. The students were then assigned to see one of two films: either two women talking for two minutes, or two men talking for two minutes. For each film, one of the speakers was slow, and the other was fast. All speakers were actors, and their speaking rates were really measured to ensure that one was fast and the other was slow (5.01 and 4.66 words per second for the females, 6.18 and 3.80 words per second for the females). The participants then answered a few questions about the conversation they watched to see if they were listening. The participants then had to read two texts, one “written” by one of the speakers, the other “written” by the other speaker. The texts themselves were manipulated based on level of difficulty, one easy and one hard. The participants were also randomly assigned to either read the second passage out loud or silently. They were told to read the passages once. Duration of reading was measured for the different set-ups. Three experiments were conducted to ensure more confidence in results.

Findings in this study demonstrate that readers can engage in auditory imagery for talkers’ voices. Across experiments, reading times, both silent and aloud, were significantly slower when readers were told that the passage was written by the speaker with a slow speaking rate and significantly faster when the passage was written by the fast speaker. Change of reading speed was based on a brief two-minute exposure to a conversation between talkers. However, the extent to which readers engaged in auditory imagery depended on text difficulty. Readers were more likely to access talker-specific representations during silent reading for difficult than for easy texts. Still, readers who scored high in auditory imagery for reading were more likely to access talker-specific representations for easy texts. These effects suggest that the linguistic representations accessed during reading preserve or include surface characteristics of spoken language. Auditory imagery appears to be talker-specific and to mirror the encoding of talker-specific information during speech perception and spoken word recognition.

I like to read, and what I liked about this study is that it took a look at how the way we read, whether out loud or silently, can be influenced by our perception of the author, specifically the author’s speaking voice. It’s interesting to know that not only is auditory imagery, that “inner voice”, something experienced by everyone, but also that it actually affects how fast or slow we read things. It’s also fascinating how well our memory works. After being exposed to a speaker’s voice for such a short time, we can quickly and easily incorporate it to that person’s writings, even if we’re not told to, and even if we’re not completely sure that that person was really the author of the text. Speaking rate, an aspect of a person’s speaking voice, actually influences our processing of written text. It’s so interesting how so many things come together: listening to sentences and understanding their meanings, reading that text whether silently or verbally and incorporating the author’s voice based on how we remember them speak, etc. It’s vision, hearing, memory, structure, content, and perception/ experience all together.

I give props to this study for different things they considered. They considered not just fast and slow speaking, but they even made sure gender did not get in the way of auditory imagery. They also considered manner of reading, which is either silently or out loud. They also conducted three experiments so that they could come up with general findings from the three. And they also made sure to lessen individual differences in hearing. What I didn’t like about this study though was that I felt like I needed more hard evidence. Although the researchers controlled and considered different variables, I don’t think timing reading is enough. Maybe it’s because I’m currently exposed to our 135 book where there’s always neuroimaging and other methods in supporting findings. The article actually mentioned research from neuroimaging studies of auditory imagery from before and how findings then can mean that imagery in this study can be re-experiencing sounds of speech or reenacting an articulatory event when the actual stimulus is not present (in other words, experiencing something similar to hearing or simulating the talker reading the text). Although support for their studies make sense, it would have been better if they made use of neuroimaging studies aside from measuring time instead of just connecting the two.

What studies can be done in the future? A bigger sample size to see how ‘true’ the results are, a comparison between males and females to see if there are differences with how they process written text, cross-cultural comparisons, and even a look into written text in the form of online chatting and text messaging. It would also be interesting to compare with levels of hearing. This study ensured that the individuals were comparable with hearing. But would people who cannot hear well be as affected by surface properties as much as others? How about people who can’t hear at all? Or in such case, would speed of a signer affect them just as speed of talkers affects normal hearing people?

I wonder why we can’t help but hear those narrators in our heads. Why is it so important for us to process things based on surface characteristics? I wonder if, somehow, in the future, technology will be that advanced for us to find out. The mere fact that people are researching on such a topic now already shows how advanced a society we are, considering there are so many other “pressing” studies to research on. But hey, we can take home something from this study. Now that we know that how fast we read can be affected by the “author” of the written text, maybe we can try (if it’s possible) to tell ourselves that the authors of our books and readings are fast speakers. That way, we can get a lot more readings done, instead of ideally planning out our time and then realizing an hour or two later that a) we read slower than we thought or hoped and b) why oh why were we so idealistic about the time and our reading skills?

Source:

Alexander, J., & Nygaard, L. (2008). Reading voices and hearing text: Talker-specific auditory imagery in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34(2), 446-459.

Mp3 players: Man's Best Friend. Or Is It?

By Kevin Chan 2007-47565

The study that i read about really caught my attention because it is something close to my heart: music and iPods. First off i just really love music. Music is such a HUGE part of my life right now

whether it be because it brings me dance or because it gives me a chance to sing or simply something to relax me. When it comes down to it, MUSIC IS HUGE A HUGE PART OF MY LIFE. And because i love music so much, I LOVE MY IPOD AS WELL!!!!

Everywhere I am, my iPod is there with me.I have about 3 or 4 pairs of headphones because I easily misplace them and I want to be listening to music 24-7. That is why this study is very close to me.

In a nutshell, the objective of this study was to be able to determine the output levels of a commercially available MPEG layer-3 (MP3) player and to study the changes in the hearing of the participants after at least hour of listening to the MP3 player. The authors are very much straightforward by saying “It is well known that excessive occupational noise exposure can lead to noise-induced hearing loss”.

Indeed, we do know that excessive noise can damage our auditory system but exactly

defines “excessive noise”? Does excessive noise entail living next to a construction site? Does it entail going to a rock concert every week? Or does it simply mean listening to your iPod an hour everyday? That is why I think this study has so much merit

The methodological design was simply. There were two groups of subjects: a noise group that was exposed to po

p-rock music (21 subjects aged 19-28) for an hour and a control group (28 subjects that was not exposed to music. The participants that

was exposed to a noise group listened to an mp3 player for a maximum of six session (one hour each) using two separate types of headphones.

Both groups were tested before and after their separate conditions. Changes in hearing was evaluated with pure-tone audiometry, transient-evoked otoacoustic emissions and

distortion product otoacoustic emissions.

Results indeed show that only after 6 sessions of one hour use of the mp3 player, there was a significant reduction of hearing sensitive. To be very technical, and since we did study these in 135, the researcher mentions that there are structural alterations in the organ of court (we learned

that this is found in the inner ear). The primary damage is concentrated on the outer hair cells which the researchers mention are vulnerable to acoustic overstim

ualation. It is important to note however that the mp3 players were at full volume which were 97. 36 dB and 102. 56 dB for the supra-aural headphones and the stock earphones that came with the mp3 player.

One criticism i have of the study is that it does not study the long term effects of listening to music players. Indeed, the researchers agree that this is on

ly the short term hearing effects. A longitudinal study will be very beneficial as it will dive into other possible effects of mp3 usage.

I was very much affected because i probably listen to my mp3 player something like at least two hours a day! ATLEAST! Travel time for me is about and hour and a half to and from school with the headphones. Walking to and from classes is another "mp3 time" for me so thats about 20 mins. Light homework and light paper writing time is also mp3 time for me. usually Other dead time that I am not talking to my friends is possible "mp3 time for me". I WONDER HOW MY ORGAN OF CORTI IS??

The researchers suggest the 60-60 rule. That means that the either you listen to your mp3 player for a maximum of 60 minutes (at full blown volume) or you continue to listen to your mp3 player but at 60% of the maximum volume.

The Apple company actually did something to remedy the flown blown volume level situation. They have a "maximum" volume that can be preset by the owner of the iPod. This is actually a very good idea that other mp3 players should copy. User can set their volume limit to 60% so as not to damage their ears.

One very good application of this study is that Apple iPod and other Mp3 players should actually put the 60-60 rule in their fine print. Similar to "government warning labels" at cigarette boxes there should be warning as well in mp3 player boxes. This will ensure consumers will be more informed at the possible structural problems excessive listening can bring.

Keppler, H. (2010) Short-term Auditory Effects of Listening to an MP3 Player. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg; 136 (6): 538-548 !

Cochlear Implants

by Michelle T. de los Santos

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Hello my beloved readers! :) My Psych 135 third exam just happened today and I remember the items in the exam about issues raised against cochlear implants in which I'm honestly unsure with my answers hence I decided to look an article about cochlear implants and write about it for my blog entry today! :) The title of the article that I found and i'll be discussing is "Effect of deep insertion of the cochlear implant electrode array on pitch estimation and speech perception" by Hamzavi & Arnoldner (2006).
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As we all know, deaf people use cochlear implantation as a hearing aid. I read in the article that the cochlear implantation has become an inseparable part of otorhinolaryngology for the treatment of profound to severe hearing loss. With the help of it, cochlear implant patients are believed to have the ability to achieve a very high speech perception levels. Which I can say is a nice thing and happy news for everyone.

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The aim of Hamzavi and Arnoldner’s (2006) study was to evaluate the importance of insertion depth beyond 25 mm in a group of cochlear implant patients with deeply inserted electrodes up to 32 mm. This experiment seems an ominous one for me because we are talking about the depth of insertion of the cochlear implant to one’s cochlea; high caution and responsibility are needed and must be noted.
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Patients and Methods
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In the initial part of the study, pitch estimation for channels across the whole length of the electrode array were asked to perform by the patients. The researchers evaluated whether pitch discrimination was possible along the whole cochlea and especially in its apical part. Next, the audiological performances of 10 patients were tested in five conditions, wherein the researchers artificially varied the insertion depth in each patient by activating and deactivating channels. The patients were tested immediately in the new condition to avoid adaptation (Hamzavi and Arnoldner’s, 2006).Results of the study showed that activating the electrodes in the uppermost region of the cochlea improves speech perception significantly. Moreover, the pitch perceived in the cochlea with electrical stimulation decreases with increasing insertion depth along the whole length of deeply inserted electrode arrays could be demonstrated. Hence, deeply inserted electrodes offer the possibility that apical stimulation may improve speech performances. Consequently, it is believed that deep insertion is reasonable and should be performed in patients with profound or total hearing loss. The researchers gave the impression that it is independent of implant type as well as the mode of stimulation. Furthermore, the number of channels provided in the apical part of the cochlea seems to be important as a function of stimulation rate. Even so the study’s results show that not all patients benefited from the maximum number of activated channels and this number must therefore be determined for each patient individually (Hamzavi and Arnoldner’s, 2006).
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Hope this study provided you readers new information and helps you decide on something regarding cochlear implants and hearing loss. This was really an interesting study for me. Although of course, the study has its limitations, such as limited participants, and some risk factors. I cannot blame the researchers because I understand that this kind of experiment is a serious one and needs lot of precautions. If given a chance, its still better if future studies/researchers can include greater amount of participant and consider some necessary measures.

P.S.

Look at the poor baby, what's with the smile right? I cannot take the pictureeeeeee!!! So sad! He/she is too young for that. :(

Consider this image:

Hmmm... whatchathink??? Good or bad? Pro or anti?

Hmmmm...it depends...

Reference:

Hamzavi, J., & Arnoldner, C. (2006). Effect of deep insertion of the cochlear implant electrode array on pitch estimation and speech perception. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 126(11), 1182-1187.

Timely Performance

Paula Parungao



What is time? We can't see it, hear it, smell it, taste it nor touch it and yet we know it exists. We know this because we depend on time so much in doing our daily activities. For example, you want to meet a friend for lunch. What's the first thing you ask? Where and what time? Let's say the friend answers the where but not the time. What then? You'd have no idea when your friend will come; you don't even know if he/she is coming on THAT day. For all you know your friend meant tomorrow or next week.

Humans aren't psychic (well, in the view of science we're not capable of being so), we can't predict what will happen in the next few seconds. And yet we move as if we do. When we dress up, we have all intention of going to work or school. When we wait at a certain place to meet up with friends, we expect them to come. When we go to our favorite store, we have full knowledge that we'd buy that chocolate bar we'd been craving for. All of this sureness in moving in the present with the unpredictable future in mind.

Time and space, at least in our brains, seem to be strongly linked to each other. This may be because one of the most common uses of our temporal mechanisms is to act out whatever needs to be done in a specific space. But where in our brain exactly does this all happen? Research has suggested that extrastriate visual areas, V5/MT and V3 are important for temporal processing. But how they're important is another thing.

The study I'm about to present aims to answer two questions.
1) What is the direct role of v5/MT in temporal discrimination?
2) Will the disruption of either the left or right parietal cortex interfere with time perception in the audio or visual domain?
Before the actual study, participants were subject to repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) while performing five tasks. Four of which tested temporal discrimination of moving visual, static visual and auditory stimuli and one which became the control task. This was to get a general view of how the brain works when presented with the stimuli. After this, the participants were subject to the real experiment.

Experiment 1
Participants were presented with stimuli on a 19-inch color monitor. What was presented to them was an array of yellow dots in a black background. This was presented twice. Participants were asked to point out which of the two arrays had a longer duration.

Experiment 2
Same as Experiment 1 only this time the dots weren't moving.

Experiment 3
The stimuli presented were two vertical columns consisting of twelve dots each. The columns outlined a "path" (the target). In "absent" trials, the dots were displayed randomly. Participants were asked whether they saw the "path" in the first array or in the second array.

Experiment 4
Same as Experiment 1 and 2 only difference being that the participants were exposed to single auditory tones when presented with the intervals.

Experiment 5
Same as Experiment 4 only with a different time duration.

The researchers found out that when TMS was applied in the V5/MT or the right inferior parietal cortex (IPC), temporal discrimination of moving stimuli was impaired and greater differences between the two arrays mentioned earlier were needed to reach 75% accuracy. This meant that the effect of TMS increased uncertainty response but not the perception of time becoming longer or shorter. This determined that V5/MT and IPC are both independently important in the temporal discrimination of moving stimuli. The results were the same for Experiment 2. It suggests that V5/MT might be involved in low-level visual timing. As for the auditory stimuli, there was no significant effect of V5/MT.



Based on these results, the researchers concluded that V5/MT had a role in both temporal and spatial vision specific to visual modality. They also showed that the right, and not the left, posterior parietal cortex is responsible for discrimination of visual and auditory durations. It also shows that two models may be responsible for perception of time in the brain. It may be that timing is either centered in one part of the brain or distributed along those areas that are capable of temporal processing and that these areas are involved in task, modality and lengths of duration used. This research also showed that time may be an important factor for degenerate representation in the brain.

Okay I admit the entry is rather technical. It does concern the brain after all and what better way to explain the brain than through pure technicality. The brain is, after all, something we shouldn't mess around with thus we need to explain it in an objective manner. As for the how this study has struck me enough to write a blog entry about it...that may be subjective. My blog won't be used for future study after all.

Moving on. This research done by Walsh, et. al. explains how the very abstract concept of time is captured in our brains. Isn't it amazing that even something so complex is not enough in complexity so as to not be comprehended by that 3 pound mush that compromised 2% of our body weight. Wow, makes me realize that all of us are all brawn and almost no brain. Anyway. The study showed where in our brains exactly time is processed and how it's processed. At least, visually and auditory for the most part. This processing happens mostly in the right posterior parietal cortex which is known to be responsible in representing the different parts of space thus proving that time and space are intertwined in our noggins. It's responsible for the determination of vision for action (ehem accordance) and spatial vision. Basically how we perceive and act on the world in a definite time and space. Who knew our brains could operationalize such a vague and abstract concept that determines so much in our lives? Hey, in a way, we may even be kinda sorta psychic. With time as our crystal ball. Isn't that SO COOL??

Okay, that's as much as I can glean from the experiment without becoming a bore. For more information on how the time-space continuum works, please contact Einstein from the grave. Or my Physics 71 professor. :)



Reference:
Bahrami, B., Bueti, D., & Walsh, V. (2008). Sensory and association cortex in time perception. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 20, 6, p1054-1062.

AFFORDANCE

by Michelle T. de los Santos

I want to talk about affordance this time since it’s the word that really stuck in my mind in our last 135 class reporting. As the word affordance was mentioned several times during the reporting, I clearly learned by heart that affordance means function or affordance = what objects are used for. Simple one right?! :D For example, an affordance would be seeing a chair as something to sit on or a bed as something to sleep. Easy as that! :P

I found a study by Chang, Wade, and Stoffregen (2009) who investigated the perception of affordances or critical action capabilities for aperture passage in an environment–person–person (E–P–P) system, which comprised a lead adult, responsible for perception of the system, and a child as a companion.

Their method includes eight large and eight small female undergraduates served as perceivers and one large and one small girl served as companions. The perceivers were companioned with a large and a small girl individually, the perceivers perceptually judged the minimum aperture width for the E–P–P system, and then the adult–child dyads (a pair of people) actually walked through to determine the system’s actual minimum aperture width (Chang, Wade, and Stoffregen, 2009).

Results of the study demonstrated that perceivers precisely judged the action capabilities of an E–P–P system based on the body-scaled information of each adult–child dyad. The findings extended the previous concept of affordances for an environment person system to affordances for an E–P–P system (Chang, Wade, and Stoffregen, 2009).
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I like the study because it was so relevant. The study is visible and available in our daily setting and environment. We usually escort weak and old people like our lolo and lola across the street and parents also help their children cross the crosswalk in daily life. These situations are very common. I learned in the article that the action has to do with the environment and a person plus person system. The article discussed that within the system, people perceive the environment from their own perspective; however, to act as a single unit, one of the two persons is dominant and determines how both should act to accomplish a specific goal. This environment–person–person (E–P–P) relationship is related to the dominant and the following individuals’ characteristics, as well as the characteristics of the environment. The perceptions of the lead person determine the behavior of the dyad. Thus, the study was made. The parent–child dyad can be an example. The parent needs to know the ratio of time needed to cross the crosswalk to time available to cross the crosswalk, as they are the more experienced and responsible member of the dyad. The researcher mentioned that if the ratio is less than one, then the dyad could cross safely (Chang, Wade, and Stoffregen, 2009).

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Indeed, this was an interesting study! :) Further experiments and researchers can improve and verify this more using another set of participants, a bigger number of participants. Male participants can also be considered next time to see if there's a difference and to avoid gender bias. In addition, I agree that in the future, reseachers should also examine the affordances of an E–P–P system in different joint actions.

Reference:

Chang, C., Wade, M. G., & Stoffregen, T. A. (2009). Perceiving affordances for aperture passage in an environment–person–person system. Journal of Motor Behavior, 41, 495-500.

Cristina Menchaca 2007-49018

Technology has been developing soquickly that the purpose of computers has extended far beyond typing up documents, making graphs, computing math equations, and anything connected to being online. Virtual realityhas been used as a method for cognitive rehabilitation, computers and machines are being developed to help paralyzed people carry out actions, and a lot more. Five years ago, 2D virtual reality programs were tested to see if they could train people with intellectual disabilities and helpthem with their shopping skills.

Almost all of us are familiar with the concept of virtual reality. Taking it from its name, virtua, reality or VR simulates real life situations while creating the illusion that one is in and is interacting with that world, artificial may it be. Studies have actually found that VR can enhance the learning and transfer of skills to everyday circumstances. In other words, there is a clear, positive transfer effect from virtual to real training. These have been proven through activity in the nervous system, neuroplastic changes in the cerebral cortex, and neuroimaging and psychophysiological studies. Thus, aside from being used in entertainment or in analyzing consumers’ attitudes and behaviors regarding a certain product, VR has been applied in functional and vocational training. Recently, there has been interest in studying whether people with learning disabilities would 1) be motivated to use a virtual environment, 2) be capable of using it, and 3) benefit from such a method of training. This is exactly what Tam et al sought to find: how effective a non-immersive, flat-screen VR method would be compared to a conventional psychoeducational method in training people with intellectual disabilities to shop in a local supermarket.

A convenience sample was used to obtain 16 participants (from four different organizations) who had a Stanford-Binet IQ test score from 40 to 54. All of them were trainees of a vocational skills training center. Selection of participants included the following requirements: at least 16 years old, emotionally and medically stable, no history of psychiatric problems or autism, independent in basic self-care activities, able to follow simple verbal instructions, able to grasp simple concepts about money, have real shopping needs, and have given consent in participating in the study. Four males and four females were randomly assigned into a group: intervention group (the VR method) and control group (the conventional method). All participants were introduced to the training objectives, training on supermarket skills, practice of shopping skills, and revision of the shopping skills. Before and after the assigned programs were carried out, a checklist for supermarket shopping skills was used in assessment, and the participants’ behavior throughout the program was also observed and noted.

What made the two set-ups so different? The control group made use of psychoeducational training: a teaching-learning process that included demonstration, role-play, and verbal feedback. VR on the other hand is interactive in nature, enabling the user to exercise direct control over a video-based virtual environment. Users are allowed to navigate, explore, and interact with videos that make up a virtual supermarket environment. The shopping process is divided into a series of tasks that required participants use to their judgment. Choices are provided at crucial points, and participants can proceed and get immediate visual and auditory reinforcement if they choose the right way to proceed. You may be thinking, why wasn’t a typical 3D method used instead of this non-immersive 2D program that makes use of a touch screen? A fully immersive display that includes a head mount 1) might not be feasible (or even necessary) for people with cognitive deficits, and 2) in general, may cause side effects like vertigo, nausea, eyestrain, disorientation, etc. because of a conflict between perceptions in different sense modalities.

There’s more to the methods. For each set-up, two sessions per person were held, each lasting 30 minutes. In the VR method, a trainer demonstrated options first. Participants received help in familiarizing themselves with navigating in the virtual environment. Retraining occurred on an individual basis, involving two trainers who gave instructions to the participants. Trainers physically collaborated with the trainees, interacting and communicating in nonverbal ways to help them. Trainers also tracked the trainees’ visual attention and physical movements in interacting with the environment (hands). In the conventional group, each participant took part in a two-part psychoeducational tutorial and role-play. Participants received consistent instructions from a trainer that were complemented with audiovisual demonstrations. Using information-based and simulated methods, the trainer introduced concepts and skills required, then the participants role-played.

Between groups and within groups differences were assessed. Participants in both groups showed improvement after the training, and the difference is significant. Training effect was more consistent for the VR group (scores 6 to 11) compared to the other group (scores 1 to 11), but the difference was not significant, meaning that VR can achieve the same level of improvement in conventional intervention. It suggests though that the VR program has a slightly greater effect, but a larger sample would be needed to confirm so. Participants who went through conventional training actually showed more varied learning outcomes because the VR method focused on consistency and motivation for certain tasks. Still, this study supported the finding that learning in a virtual training environment can be extended to reality. The VR program was a more realistic environment, while the conventional program made use of instructions and role-play only. There was also effective feedback (that facilitated learning) in the VR set-up because of the program’s design. In the conventional set-up, feedback from trainers as the participants role-played may not have been considered objective and consistent by the participants.

This study is a clear example of taking action because it allows participants to scan their environment and make decisions and actions based on the important cues they see. The checklist for the abilities for the participants is as follows, each being rated as 1 for dependent, 2 for needs assistance, and 3 for independent:

1. Can recognize the sign of the supermarket

2. Can enter in the right entrance

3. Can recall the target item

4. Can decide whether or not to use the food cart

5. Can get into aisles and identify whether or not the target item is there

6. Can decide which aisle to enter given more than one choice

7. Can locate items on shelves, displays, or bins

8. Can locate items similar to the target item

9. Can locate the target item

10. Can choose the correct amount of the target

11. Can check food expiration dates when suspected

12. Can avoid purchasing products that are dented, opened or appear spoiled

13. Can pick up the target item

14. Knows the need to pay for the item

15. Can search for the cashier after picking up the item

16. Can locate the cashier

17. Can find a cashier in service

18. Can queue at the cashier

19. Can put the item on the counter

20. Can pay using Hong Kong money

21. Can communicate appropriately with the cashier when needed

22. Can get the change

23. Can pick up the bought item

24. Can find the correct exit

VR creates an “artificial” multisensory experience of an environment, including space and events, and thus may be more effective for participants than simple role-play, where participants may have difficulty generalizing their actions when in the real environment. However, it was also observed by the trainers that impaired learning ability of participants limits their ability to navigate within the virtual environment and even in participating in such training. Cognitive issues when designing the VR system should thus be considered. I suppose this was difficult for the researchers. On one hand, there’s the importance of making sure participants are comparable, but on the other hand, there’s a compromise for that when the sample is very specific- in this case, people with intellectual disabilities, and people with such have different levels of intelligence, capability, etc.

I liked that the very essence of this study was something ‘life promoting’. People with disabilities already have less advantage than other people, so it’s heartwarming to know that technology is being put into good use, so that maybe, their lives can be less difficult and they can depend less on others. I appreciated the checklist actually, because the items were so specific. The items made me realize how we take for granted the things we don’t even think we think of, when there are people who actually have difficulty doing them. Speaking in terms of technicality, I liked that choosing participants was very specific, so that comparison among participants and evaluation of results would not be ‘nullified’. I also liked that the study ensured an equal number of males and females per set-up, to account for gender differences. One may think that having such numerous criteria to be a participant is unfair in the sense that the study is still biased because it cannot speak for those with less capability. I think otherwise, because this is just the starting study. For now, it would be best to have a specific sample, to see if the method even works. When it can be improved, then can we worry about having the method be one that could suit anyone. I appreciate that VR was considered as an option in such training. After all, it makes sense to practice in a condition that is almost life-like, so that it is not hard to apply it in real life. It makes extra sense for the intellectually disabled, not because they are any less, but because being disabled, not being able to practice in a more real setting (as in role-play) might be harder to apply. Finally, I also have Asian pride because of this experiment, since the study was done in Hong Kong, and made use of Hong Kong dollars. I like that the study made things as ‘real life’ as possible, through the use of real money for example, no matter what set-up.

My only suggestion for this study is that a bigger sample be used so that the effectiveness of the method can be verified and its comparison with the conventional method be established. It’s really from here that the technology can then be developed so that it could reach more people. This study had important knowledge that the participants could learn from. Speaking short term, participants would think of questions like where am I in the environment, what do I see, where do I go, how do I get there? Speaking long term, participants could ask themselves questions like what can and do I learn as I see and explore the environment? Perhaps in the future, technology can extend further and train people in various skills of community survival: transport skills, road safety, wheelchair accessibility, etc. Whatever happens, I’m sure we can all agree even from this study alone that the virtual reality environment can be a very powerful tool in rehabilitation and improvement of life, not just in entertainment and whatnot.

Source:

Tam, S., Man, D., Chan, Y., Sze, P., & Wong, C. (2005). Evaluation of a computer-assisted, 2-D virtual reality system for training people with intellectual disabilities on how to shop. Rehabilitation Psychology, 50(3), 285-291.